A newsletter produced by Albaeco,
Sweden
Dr. Fredrik Moberg, Editor
FEATURE:
< < Coral Reefs: important assets to the poor
IN BRIEF:
New Water Poverty Index
Safe Drinking Water Declared Human
Right
Organic farms in Nicaragua
less vulnerable to hurricanes
CORAL REEFS: IMPORTANT ASSETS TO THE POOR
Two new reports on the status of the world's coral reefs contain a mix of good and bad news. The rate of damage to coral reefs is increasing, but is counteracted by an increase in conservation efforts. Such efforts must include the millions of poor to whom coral reefs are a significant source of protein. The poorest of the poor often rely on coastal resources when nothing else is available.
Coral reefs are an important protein source for a billion people in Asia. Photo: Carl Folke
"For many of us the reefs are a tourist resort, but for many poor people they are the last resort when land has been degraded", said Australian researcher Clive Wilkinson when presenting Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2002. Dr. Wilkinson is the editor of the 400-page report, which also highlights activities aimed at arresting reef decline. It was one of two reports on the status of coral reefs that were announced December 6 at Sida in Stockholm. Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean, Status Report 2001-2002 focuses on countries in and around the Indian Ocean devastated by coral bleaching in 1998 (see box). It was presented by two of the editors, Olof Lindén and Dan Wilhelmsson.
Both reports are a mix of good and bad news. The bad news is that for many reefs severely damaged by bleaching in 1998, recovery is slow. This has affected food security as well as local and national economies that depend on reef related tourism and industry. In the many reefs that are also stressed by high levels of sediment, nutrient pollution and over-fishing, recovery is even slower or is actually stalled. The good news is that bleached reefs show signs of recovery at all, and that for unstressed reefs, predominately in protected areas, recovery is encouraging. A worrying sign is that even many reefs that have "recovered" now have an altered species composition; temperature-tolerant species have become more common, meaning that overall species diversity has decreased. This will most likely render reefs more vulnerable to other kinds of disturbances (more about the relationship between biodiversity and vulnerability/resilience in SDU2/2002).
Nevertheless, awareness is growing and many new initiatives have been initiated to save coral reefs, notes Dr. Wilkinson. For example, several reef-related "Type II partnerships" among governments, development banks, agencies and NGOs were announced at the Johannesburg World Summit.
Assets to the poor
Coral reefs are mainly found in developing countries. Coral reefs are richer
in marine biodiversity than any other ecosystem in the world and provide many
functions vital to poor indigenous coastal communities. For example, it has
been estimated that reefs are the main source of animal protein for more than
one billion poor people in Asia. Many also derive part or all of their income
from reef resources. Clive Wilkinson noted that the poorest of the poor often
turn to coastal resources when nothing else is available. When near-shore
fisheries collapse, poor fishermen often resort to dynamite, poisons and other
illegal and destructive techniques. In essence, they are forced to plunder
their children's future to feed them today. Therefore, policies for sustaining
coral reefs must consider their sustainable use by the poor and provide the
poor alternative livelihoods while reefs recover.
Coral reefs also provide numerous other valuable goods and services that benefit the rich. The total value of goods and services provided by reefs has been estimated at US$375 billion per year. Coral reefs maintain biodiversity and provide recreational tourism opportunities as well as protecting coastal communities from storms, wave damage and erosion. Moreover, these "rainforests of the seas" are full of new and undiscovered biomedical resources that we've only just begun to explore. The most famous of these is AZT, an anti-AIDS drug based on chemicals from a reef sponge.
Economic valuations, however, tend to overlook the value of coral reefs to
poor people and local coastal communities. This issue is addressed in the
new Reef Livelihoods Assessment Project, funded by the British Government
department for international development (DFID). The project uses the "Sustainable
Livelihood Approach" to develop a wider definition of value, using value
systems defined by the poor themselves.
Canaries of the sea
Some call coral reefs "the canaries of the sea". When the canary
fell from its perch, coal miners knew that disaster was imminent. Likewise,
when reefs fail, we know that our oceans are in peril. Coral reefs are among
the largest and oldest living biological communities on Earth. They have coped
with natural environmental disturbances such as changes in temperature, sea-level
changes, diseases and storms over millions of years. A certain degree of disturbance
is even a precondition for the coral reefs' large number of species. In recent
decades, however, coral reefs have been hit by more powerful, frequent and
numerous disturbances as a result of Man's actions and reefs are therefore
in serious decline.
Dr. Wilkinson explained that prior to 1998, direct stresses caused by human activities, such as land-based pollution and destructive fishing practices, were considered to be the primary dangers to coral reefs. Since then, scientists have added climate change to the list of hazards to coral reefs as increased seawater temperatures increase the incidence and severity of coral bleaching.
One common symptom of reef degradation is that algae take over and become dominant. Even reefs free from human interference can swing between several alternative states of equilibrium, including an algae dominated state. However, due to a number of disturbances algae dominance is becoming ever more common. Algae dominated reefs produce less fish and other goods and services, and are often more or less locked in this undesirable state that is difficult, expensive or impossible to reverse.
Pale prospects for the future?
If coral reefs are to produce goods and services in the future their resilience
(capacity to deal with disturbance) must be preserved. Such efforts must also
include protecting the resilience of surrounding systems such as mangrove
forests, seagrass beds, the open sea and, not the least, on land.
For instance, logging of coastal forests can cause sediment and excess nutrients
to pour over the reefs. Resulting reef degradation might lead to tourism and
fishery losses among other things. These losses are not included in logging
companies' profit calculations, even though the external costs to society
are often much higher than the net profits from logging.
It is also common practice to clear mangrove forests to make room for shrimp
ponds, which destroys important nursery and breeding grounds for many coral
reef fishes. Intact mangroves also filter away excess nutrients, sediment
and pollutants and provide suitable conditions for coral reefs. Most cultured
shrimps are exported to luxury markets abroad, and the shrimp farming industries
do not bear the large external costs of environmental degradation to both
mangroves and coral reefs.
The world's richest countries are responsible for most emissions of greenhouse
gases and hence for global warming. Coral reef ecosystems are especially susceptible
to climate change and are found mostly in developing countries. So, to save
the world's coral reefs, rich countries must not only provide foreign aid,
but also reduce the release of greenhouse gases in their own countries.
There is now widespread understanding of the major causes of coral reef decline and there have been many management successes to learn from. For example, Integrated Coastal Zone Management is a cross-sectoral strategy that considers the connections between reefs and adjacent systems as well as the interactions between global and local threats. Coral reefs are at a crossroad, Dr. Wilkinson warns. They can be saved provided there is sufficient political will and financial support.
Mangrove forests decrease run-off from land and trap sediments, nutrients and pollutants so that water quality remains suitable for adjacent coral reefs. Photo: Louise Hård af Segerstad
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The upper layer of a coral reef is composed of tiny polyps of stony corals living upon the remains of their dead predecessors. These polyps secrete calcium carbonate (limestone) building their skeletons and providing a habitat for thousands of other species. Bleaching occurs when corals lose the photosynthesising microalgae (zooxanthellae) that live within the polyps' transparent tissue. When the algae (or their pigment) are lost the white skeleton becomes visible. Microalgae serve as a source of food for polyps and also speed up the growth of their skeletons. Bleaching is a general stress response when corals are exposed to extremes of temperature, UV radiation, and pollutants. Severe and prolonged bleaching lead to mortality as reef corals can only cope without their microalgae for a limited period of time. Bleaching in 1998, caused by increased water temperatures linked to global warming and the weather phenomenon El Niño, caused extensive damage to about 16% of the world's reefs. |
More at:
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NEW WATER POVERTY INDEX
A new Water Poverty Index (WPI) draws attention to the links between poverty,
social deprivation, environmental integrity, water availability, and health.
The index is modelled after the Consumer Price Index and demonstrates that
it is not only the amount of water available that affects the incidence of
poverty, but also how water is used. Researchers at Britain's Centre for Ecology
and Hydrology have developed the index together with experts from the World
Water Council. The WPI was made public December 11 in advance of the International
Year of Freshwater 2003. The index is comprised of five major components:
resource availability, access, how water is used, human and financial capacity
to manage water, and an evaluation of ecological integrity related to water
Finland has the highest WPI value, followed by Canada, Iceland, Norway and
Guyana. Haiti is at the bottom of the list after Niger, Ethiopia, Eritrea
and Malawi. The researchers behind the index have hopes that it will enable
more accurate assessments of how much water stress exists for particular communities
and how changes in availability and provision of water can contribute to poverty
alleviation. The WPI and the world development target to halve the number
of people without access to clean water and sanitation by 2015 will be discussed
further at the Third Water Forum in Kyoto, March 2003.
More at :
www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/waterdome-fact-sheets/nature2.pdf
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SAFE DRINKING WATER DECLARED A HUMAN RIGHT
Safe and secure drinking water has for the first time been formally declared a human right. A UN committee recently released a "General Comment" stating that "Water is fundamental for life and health. The human right to water is indispensable for leading a healthy life in human dignity. It is a pre-requisite to the realization of all other human rights." This is an interpretation of the provisions of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ratified by 145 countries. According to the World Health Organisation, the General Comment provides a tool for civil society to hold governments accountable for ensuring equitable access to water.
More at:
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/releases/pr91/en/
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ORGANIC FARMS IN NICARAGUA LESS VULNERABLE TO HURRICANES
Organic farms were less affected by Hurricane Mitch in 1998 than conventional farms, according to a new study.
The study used a "participatory research approach" involving 19
non-governmental organisations, 45 farmer-technician teams, and 833 farmers.
The organic or "sustainable" farms in the study had 40% more topsoil
on average, greater soil moisture, less erosion, and more vegetative cover.
They also suffered fewer economic losses than neighbouring conventional farms.
Sustainable farm practices included soil and water conservation methods, less
use of chemicals and more use of organic fertiliser. These farms also planted
"cover crops", grown primarily to prevent soil erosion by wind and
water, and practised agroforestry, the growing of trees and shrubs in combination
with crops to diversify and sustain production. Sustainable farms also employed
Integrated Pest Management, a combination of control tactics to minimise the
use of pesticides and maximise the use of natural processes, such as using
natural enemies of the pest.
Hurricane Mitch, one of the Caribbean's most powerful hurricanes in recent
history, thrashed the region with 180 mph winds and dumped one to six feet
of rains on Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and El Salvador. It resulted in
mudslides and landslides that washed away crops, animals and infrastructure.
Over ten thousand people died and millions were displaced or left homeless.
Mitch caused almost US$ 7 billion dollars in damage, around 13% of Central
America's GNP. The magnitude of the disaster was by many observers considered
to be the consequence of environmental degradation such as deforestation and
non-sustainable agricultural practices that made the region exceptionally
vulnerable to erosion
Source:
Holt-Giménez, E. 2002. Measuring farmers'
agroecological resistance after Hurricane Mitch in Nicaragua: a case study
in participatory, sustainable land management impact monitoring. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment 93: 87-105.
More at:
http://www.agroecology.org/people/eric/resist.htm
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THE QUOTE:
"The most serious environmental threat is collective denial and global arrogance. We believe that we are superior cultural creatures that are completely independent of Nature. I am interested in Nature from a human-centred perspective - as the ultimate basis for human welfare, but without viewing humanity as superior."
Source:
Carl Folke, Professor of Natural Resource Management
at Stockholm University, Sweden, translated from an interview in the Swedish
magazine Dagens Forskning.
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© 2002 Albaeco.com
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